Details of the Drug

General Information of Drug (ID: DMKJ485)

Drug Name

Pioglitazone

Synonyms

111025-46-8; Actos; Pioglitazona; Pioglitazonum; Glustin; Zactos; 105355-27-9; Pioglitazonum [INN-Latin]; Pioglitazona [INN-Spanish]; Duetact; Pioglitazone [INN:BAN]; Pioglitazone [BAN:INN]; 5-(4-(2-(5-ethylpyridin-2-yl)ethoxy)benzyl)thiazolidine-2,4-dione; AD-4833; U 72107; CHEBI:8228; Pioglitazone (Actos); HSDB 7322; Actos (TN); 5-{4-[2-(5-ethylpyridin-2-yl)ethoxy]benzyl}-1,3-thiazolidine-2,4-dione; C19H20N2O3S; AD 4833; 5-[4-[2-(5-ETHYL-2-PYRIDYL)ETHOXY]BENZYL]-2,4-THIAZOLIDINEDIONE; U 72107A; Actos; Actost; Glustin (TN); HS-0047; Pioglitazone (INN); U-72107; U72,107A; Zactos (TN); (+-)-5-((4-(2-(5-ethyl-2-pyridinyl)ethoxy)phenyl)methyl)-2,4-thiazolidinedione; (+/-)-5-[[4-[2-(5-Ethyl-2-pyridinyl)-ethoxy]phenyl]methyl]-2,4-thiazolidinedione; (+/-)-5-[p-[2-(ethyl-2-pyridyl)ethoxy]benzyl]-2,4-thiazolidinedione; 2,4-Thiazolidinedione, 5-[[4-[2-(5-ethyl-2-pyridinyl)ethoxy]phenyl]methyl]-(9CI); 5-((4-(2-(5-Ethyl-2-pyridinyl)ethoxy)phenyl)methyl)-2,4-thiazolidinedione; 5-(4-(2-(5-ethyl-2-pyridyl)ethoxy)benzyl)-2,4-thiazolidinedione; 5-[4-[2-(5-Ethyl-2-pyridyl)ethoxy]benzyl]thiazolidine-2,4-dione; 5-[[4-[2-(5-Ethyl-2-pyridinyl)ethoxy]phenyl]methyl]-2,4-thiazolidinedione; 5-[[4-[2-(5-ethylpyridin-2-yl)ethoxy]phenyl]methyl]-1,3-thiazolidine-2,4-dione; 5-[[4-[2-(5-ethylpyridin-2-yl)ethoxy]phenyl]methyl]thiazolidine-2,4-dione; 5-[[4-[2-[(5-ethyl-2-pyridyl)]ethoxy]phenyl]methyl]thiazolidine-2,4-dione; Linagliptin + pioglitazone; PCG1

Indication

Disease Entry	ICD 11	Status	REF
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis	8B60.0	Approved	[1]
Diabetic complication	5A2Y	Approved	[2]
Non-insulin dependent diabetes	5A11	Approved	[1]
Type-2 diabetes	5A11	Phase 3	[3]
Endometriosis	GA10	Investigative	[1]
Obesity	5B81	Investigative	[4]
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Therapeutic Class

Hypoglycemic Agents

Drug Type

Small molecular drug

Structure

3D MOL

2D MOL

#Ro5 Violations (Lipinski): 0

Molecular Weight (mw)

356.4

Logarithm of the Partition Coefficient (xlogp)

3.8

Rotatable Bond Count (rotbonds)

Hydrogen Bond Donor Count (hbonddonor)

Hydrogen Bond Acceptor Count (hbondacc)

ADMET Property

Absorption Tmax: The time to maximum plasma concentration (Tmax) is 2 h [5]
BDDCS Class: Biopharmaceutics Drug Disposition Classification System (BDDCS) Class 2: low solubility and high permeability [6]
Bioavailability: 83% of drug becomes completely available to its intended biological destination(s) [7]
Clearance: The clearance of drug is 5-7 L/h [5]
Elimination: Approximately 15-30% of orally administered pioglitazone is recovered in the urine [5]
Half-life: The concentration or amount of drug in body reduced by one-half in 3 - 7 hours [5]
Metabolism: The drug is metabolized via the both hydroxylation and oxidation [5]
MRTD: The Maximum Recommended Therapeutic Dose (MRTD) of drug that ensured maximising efficacy and moderate side effect is 1.8035 micromolar/kg/day [8]
Vd: The volume of distribution (Vd) of drug is 0.63 +/- 0.41 L/kg [5]

Chemical Identifiers

Formula: C19H20N2O3S
IUPAC Name: 5-[[4-[2-(5-ethylpyridin-2-yl)ethoxy]phenyl]methyl]-1,3-thiazolidine-2,4-dione
Canonical SMILES: CCC1=CN=C(C=C1)CCOC2=CC=C(C=C2)CC3C(=O)NC(=O)S3
InChI: InChI=1S/C19H20N2O3S/c1-2-13-3-6-15(20-12-13)9-10-24-16-7-4-14(5-8-16)11-17-18(22)21-19(23)25-17/h3-8,12,17H,2,9-11H2,1H3,(H,21,22,23)
InChIKey: HYAFETHFCAUJAY-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Cross-matching ID

PubChem CID: 4829
ChEBI ID: CHEBI:8228
CAS Number: 111025-46-8
DrugBank ID: DB01132
TTD ID: D03OFF
VARIDT ID: DR00518
INTEDE ID: DR1295
ACDINA ID: D00534

Combinatorial Drugs (CBD)

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Repurposed Drugs (RPD)

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Molecular Interaction Atlas of This Drug

Drug Therapeutic Target (DTT)

DTT Name	DTT ID	UniProt ID	MOA	REF
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma)	TTZMAO3	PPARG_HUMAN	Agonist	[9]

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Drug-Metabolizing Enzyme (DME)

DME Name	DME ID	UniProt ID	MOA	REF
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4)_{Main DME}	DE4LYSA	CP3A4_HUMAN	Substrate	[10]
Cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9)	DE5IED8	CP2C9_HUMAN	Substrate	[11]
Cytochrome P450 2C8 (CYP2C8)_{Main DME}	DES5XRU	CP2C8_HUMAN	Substrate	[12]
Prostaglandin G/H synthase 1 (COX-1)	DE073H6	PGH1_HUMAN	Substrate	[13]

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Drug Off-Target (DOT)

DOT Name	DOT ID	UniProt ID	Interaction	REF
3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/Delta 5-->4-isomerase type 2 (HSD3B2)	OT02MSKN	3BHS2_HUMAN	Gene/Protein Processing	[14]
3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR)	OTRT3F3U	HMDH_HUMAN	Gene/Protein Processing	[15]
Acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase, cytosolic (ACAT2)	OTZ092ZJ	THIC_HUMAN	Gene/Protein Processing	[16]
Acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase, mitochondrial (ACAT1)	OTJC60Q7	THIL_HUMAN	Gene/Protein Processing	[17]
Adiponectin (ADIPOQ)	OTNX23LE	ADIPO_HUMAN	Gene/Protein Processing	[18]
Alternative prion protein (PRNP)	OTE85L1Q	APRIO_HUMAN	Gene/Protein Processing	[19]
Amyloid-beta precursor protein (APP)	OTKFD7R4	A4_HUMAN	Gene/Protein Processing	[20]
Angiopoietin-related protein 4 (ANGPTL4)	OTQL5SPX	ANGL4_HUMAN	Gene/Protein Processing	[16]
Ankyrin repeat domain-containing protein SOWAHC (SOWAHC)	OTI86ECP	SWAHC_HUMAN	Gene/Protein Processing	[16]
AP-1 complex subunit sigma-2 (AP1S2)	OTZHJFYI	AP1S2_HUMAN	Gene/Protein Processing	[16]

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Molecular Interaction Atlas (MIA)

MIA Detail

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Molecular Expression Atlas of This Drug

ICD Disease Classification

16 Disease of the genitourinary system

Disease Class

ICD-11: GA10 Endometriosis

The Studied Tissue

Endometrium tissue

The Studied Disease

Endometriosis [ICD-11:GA10]

Molecule Name	Molecule Type	Gene Name	p-value	Fold-Change	Z-score
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma)	DTT	PPARG	2.42E-02	0.17	0.19
Cytochrome P450 2C8 (CYP2C8)	DME	CYP2C8	7.97E-02	-4.55E-02	-3.54E-01
Cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9)	DME	CYP2C9	9.10E-03	4.31E-01	9.29E-01
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4)	DME	CYP3A4	9.50E-01	8.27E-02	3.14E-01
Prostaglandin G/H synthase 1 (COX-1)	DME	PTGS1	2.17E-01	6.85E-01	4.32E-01

Molecular Expression Atlas (MEA)

MEA Detail

Jump to Detail Molecular Expression Atlas of This Drug

Drug-Drug Interaction (DDI) Information of This Drug

Coadministration of a Drug Treating the Disease Different from Pioglitazone (Comorbidity)

DDI Drug Name	DDI Drug ID	Severity	Mechanism	Comorbidity	REF
Remdesivir	DMBFZ6L	Moderate	Increased risk of hepatotoxicity by the combination of Pioglitazone and Remdesivir.	1D6YCoronavirus Disease 2019 [1D6YCoronavirus Disease 2019]	[21]
Bedaquiline	DM3906J	Moderate	Increased risk of hepatotoxicity by the combination of Pioglitazone and Bedaquiline.	Antimicrobial drug resistance [MG50-MG52]	[22]
Dalfopristin	DM4LTKV	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Dalfopristin mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Bacterial infection [1A00-1C4Z]	[23]
Clarithromycin	DM4M1SG	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Clarithromycin mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Bacterial infection [1A00-1C4Z]	[24]
Pexidartinib	DMS2J0Z	Major	Increased risk of hepatotoxicity by the combination of Pioglitazone and Pexidartinib.	Bone/articular cartilage neoplasm [2F7B]	[25]
Lapatinib	DM3BH1Y	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Lapatinib mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Breast cancer [2C60-2C6Y]	[26]
Drospirenone	DM1A9W3	Minor	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Drospirenone mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Contraceptive management [QA21]	[27]
Levonorgestrel	DM1DP7T	Minor	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Levonorgestrel mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Contraceptive management [QA21]	[27]
Mestranol	DMG3F94	Minor	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Mestranol mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Contraceptive management [QA21]	[28]
Lumacaftor	DMCLWDJ	Moderate	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Lumacaftor mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Cystic fibrosis [CA25]	[29]
MK-8228	DMOB58Q	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by MK-8228 mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Cytomegaloviral disease [1D82]	[26]
Vilazodone	DM4LECQ	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Vilazodone mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Depression [6A70-6A7Z]	[26]
Nefazodone	DM4ZS8M	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Nefazodone mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Depression [6A70-6A7Z]	[24]
Stiripentol	DMMSDOY	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Stiripentol mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Epilepsy/seizure [8A61-8A6Z]	[30]
Rufinamide	DMWE60C	Moderate	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Rufinamide mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Epilepsy/seizure [8A61-8A6Z]	[31]
Phenobarbital	DMXZOCG	Moderate	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Phenobarbital mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Epilepsy/seizure [8A61-8A6Z]	[32]
Cannabidiol	DM0659E	Moderate	Increased risk of hepatotoxicity by the combination of Pioglitazone and Cannabidiol.	Epileptic encephalopathy [8A62]	[31]
Ripretinib	DM958QB	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Ripretinib mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Gastrointestinal stromal tumour [2B5B]	[26]
Rifapentine	DMCHV4I	Moderate	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Rifapentine mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	HIV-infected patients with tuberculosis [1B10-1B14]	[32]
Brentuximab vedotin	DMWLC57	Moderate	Increased risk of hepatotoxicity by the combination of Pioglitazone and Brentuximab vedotin.	Hodgkin lymphoma [2B30]	[33]
Saquinavir	DMG814N	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Saquinavir mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Human immunodeficiency virus disease [1C60-1C62]	[24]
Etravirine	DMGV8QU	Moderate	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Etravirine mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Human immunodeficiency virus disease [1C60-1C62]	[34]
Raltegravir	DMYURI6	Minor	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Raltegravir mediated induction of UGT.	Human immunodeficiency virus disease [1C60-1C62]	[35]
Gemfibrozil	DMD8Q3J	Major	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Gemfibrozil mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Hyper-lipoproteinaemia [5C80]	[26]
Mipomersen	DMGSRN1	Major	Increased risk of hepatotoxicity by the combination of Pioglitazone and Mipomersen.	Hyper-lipoproteinaemia [5C80]	[36]
Teriflunomide	DMQ2FKJ	Major	Increased risk of hepatotoxicity by the combination of Pioglitazone and Teriflunomide.	Hyper-lipoproteinaemia [5C80]	[35]
BMS-201038	DMQTAGO	Major	Increased risk of hepatotoxicity by the combination of Pioglitazone and BMS-201038.	Hyper-lipoproteinaemia [5C80]	[37]
ITI-007	DMUQ1DO	Major	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by ITI-007 mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Insomnia [7A00-7A0Z]	[38]
Selpercatinib	DMZR15V	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Selpercatinib mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Lung cancer [2C25]	[26]
Idelalisib	DM602WT	Moderate	Increased risk of hepatotoxicity by the combination of Pioglitazone and Idelalisib.	Mature B-cell leukaemia [2A82]	[39]
IPI-145	DMWA24P	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by IPI-145 mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Mature B-cell leukaemia [2A82]	[40]
Vemurafenib	DM62UG5	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Vemurafenib mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Melanoma [2C30]	[26]
Dabrafenib	DMX6OE3	Moderate	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Dabrafenib mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Melanoma [2C30]	[21]
Exjade	DMHPRWG	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Exjade mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Mineral absorption/transport disorder [5C64]	[26]
Nilotinib	DM7HXWT	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Nilotinib mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Myeloproliferative neoplasm [2A20]	[41]
Abametapir	DM2RX0I	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Abametapir mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Pediculosis [1G00]	[42]
Lefamulin	DME6G97	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Lefamulin mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Pneumonia [CA40]	[43]
ABIRATERONE	DM8V75C	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by ABIRATERONE mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Prostate cancer [2C82]	[26]
Dexamethasone	DMMWZET	Moderate	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Dexamethasone mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Rheumatoid arthritis [FA20]	[24]
Larotrectinib	DM26CQR	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Larotrectinib mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Solid tumour/cancer [2A00-2F9Z]	[21]
Trabectedin	DMG3Y89	Moderate	Increased risk of hepatotoxicity by the combination of Pioglitazone and Trabectedin.	Solid tumour/cancer [2A00-2F9Z]	[31]
Armodafinil	DMGB035	Minor	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Armodafinil mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Solid tumour/cancer [2A00-2F9Z]	[44]
LEE011	DMMX75K	Moderate	Increased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by LEE011 mediated induction of CYP450 enzyme.	Solid tumour/cancer [2A00-2F9Z]	[21]
Fostamatinib	DM6AUHV	Moderate	Decreased metabolism of Pioglitazone caused by Fostamatinib mediated inhibition of CYP450 enzyme.	Thrombocytopenia [3B64]	[45]
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Drug Inactive Ingredient(s) (DIG) and Formulation(s) of This Drug

DIG

DIG Name	DIG ID	PubChem CID	Functional Classification
Mannitol	E00103	6251	Diluent; Flavoring agent; Lyophilization aid; Plasticizing agent; Tonicity agent
Sodium lauryl sulfate	E00464	3423265	Emulsifying agent; Modified-release agent; Penetration agent; Solubilizing agent; Surfactant; lubricant
Lactose monohydrate	E00393	104938	Binding agent; Diluent; Dry powder inhaler carrier; Lyophilization aid
Magnesium stearate	E00208	11177	lubricant
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Pharmaceutical Formulation

Formulation Name	Drug Dosage	Dosage Form	Route
Pioglitazone 15 mg tablet	15 mg	Oral Tablet	Oral
Pioglitazone 30 mg tablet	30 mg	Oral Tablet	Oral
Pioglitazone 45 mg tablet	45 mg	Oral Tablet	Oral

Jump to Detail Pharmaceutical Formulation Page of This Drug

References

1	Pioglitazone FDA Label
2	URL: http://www.guidetopharmacology.org Nucleic Acids Res. 2015 Oct 12. pii: gkv1037. The IUPHAR/BPS Guide to PHARMACOLOGY in 2016: towards curated quantitative interactions between 1300 protein targets and 6000 ligands. (Ligand id: 2694).
3	ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT01183013) 30 Week Parallel Group Comparison Study of Linagliptin + Pioglitazone (5+15, 5+30 and 5+45 mg) qd Versus Respective Monotherapies, Followed by a Comparison of 5mg+30mg and 5mg+45mg Versus Respective Monotherapies in Type 2 Diabetes for up to 54 Weeks. U.S. National Institutes of Health.
4	Obesity: pathophysiology and clinical management. Curr Med Chem. 2009;16(4):506-21.
5	FDA Approved Drug Products: Actos (pioglitazone) oral tablets
6	BDDCS applied to over 900 drugs
7	Critical Evaluation of Human Oral Bioavailability for Pharmaceutical Drugs by Using Various Cheminformatics Approaches
8	Estimating the safe starting dose in phase I clinical trials and no observed effect level based on QSAR modeling of the human maximum recommended daily dose
9	Functional PPAR-gamma receptor is a novel therapeutic target for ACTH-secreting pituitary adenomas. Nat Med. 2002 Nov;8(11):1281-7.
10	Pioglitazone is metabolised by CYP2C8 and CYP3A4 in vitro: potential for interactions with CYP2C8 inhibitors. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2006 Jul;99(1):44-51.
11	Current clinical evidence on pioglitazone pharmacogenomics. Front Pharmacol. 2013 Nov 26;4:147.
12	The role of human CYP2C8 and CYP2C9 variants in pioglitazone metabolism in vitro. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2009 Dec;105(6):374-9.
13	Substrates, inducers, inhibitors and structure-activity relationships of human Cytochrome P450 2C9 and implications in drug development. Curr Med Chem. 2009;16(27):3480-675.
14	Pioglitazone inhibits androgen production in NCI-H295R cells by regulating gene expression of CYP17 and HSD3B2. Mol Pharmacol. 2007 Mar;71(3):787-98.
15	PPAR gamma ligands, troglitazone and pioglitazone, up-regulate expression of HMG-CoA synthase and HMG-CoA reductase gene in THP-1 macrophages. FEBS Lett. 2002 Jun 5;520(1-3):177-81.
16	Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gama) ligand pioglitazone regulated gene networks in term human primary trophoblast cells. Reprod Toxicol. 2018 Oct;81:99-107.
17	Comparison of the effects of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone on macrophage foam cell formation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2004 Oct 22;323(3):782-8.
18	PARP-1 suppresses adiponectin expression through poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation of PPAR gamma in cardiac fibroblasts. Cardiovasc Res. 2009 Jan 1;81(1):98-107. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvn264. Epub 2008 Sep 24.
19	Co-Administration of Melatonin Effectively Enhances the Therapeutic Effects of Pioglitazone on Mesenchymal Stem Cells Undergoing Indoxyl Sulfate-Induced Senescence through Modulation of Cellular Prion Protein Expression. Int J Mol Sci. 2018 May 4;19(5):1367. doi: 10.3390/ijms19051367.
20	Acute treatment with the PPARgamma agonist pioglitazone and ibuprofen reduces glial inflammation and Abeta1-42 levels in APPV717I transgenic mice. Brain. 2005 Jun;128(Pt 6):1442-53. doi: 10.1093/brain/awh452. Epub 2005 Apr 7.
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22	Product Information. Sirturo (bedaquiline). Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Titusville, NJ.
23	Product Information. Synercid (dalfopristin-quinupristin) Rhone-Poulenc Rorer, Collegeville, PA.
24	Product Information. Actos (pioglitazone) Takeda Pharmaceuticals America, Lincolnshire, IL.
25	Product Information. Turalio (pexidartinib). Daiichi Sankyo, Inc., Parsippany, NJ.
26	Aquilante CL, Kosmiski LA, Bourne DW, et al. "Impact of the CYP2C8 *3 polymorphism on the drug-drug interaction between gemfibrozil and pioglitazone." Br J Clin Pharmacol 75 (2013): 217-26. [PMID: 22625877]
27	Glazer NB, Cheatham WW "Thiazolidinediones for type 2 diabetes - No evidence exists that pioglitazone induces hepatic cytochrome P450 isoform CYP3A4." Br Med J 322 (2001): 235-6. [PMID: 11159615]
28	Loi CM, Stern R, Koup JR, Vassos AB, Knowlton P, Sedman AJ "Effect of troglitazone on the pharmacokinetics of an oral contraceptive agent." J Clin Pharmacol 39 (1999): 410-7. [PMID: 10197300]
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31	Cerner Multum, Inc. "UK Summary of Product Characteristics.".
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33	Product Information. Adcetris (brentuximab vedotin). Seattle Genetics Inc, Bothell, WA.
34	Product Information. Intelence (etravirine). Ortho Biotech Inc, Bridgewater, NJ.
35	Canadian Pharmacists Association.
36	Product Information. Kynamro (mipomersen). Genzyme Corporation, Cambridge, MA.
37	Product Information. Juxtapid (lomitapide). Aegerion Pharmaceuticals Inc, Cambridge, MA.
38	Product Information. Caplyta (lumateperone). Intra-Cellular Therapies, Inc., New York, NY.
39	Product Information. Zydelig (idelalisib). Gilead Sciences, Foster City, CA.
40	Product Information. Copiktra (duvelisib). Verastem, Inc., Needham, MA.
41	Product Information. Tasigna (nilotinib). Novartis Pharmaceuticals, East Hanover, NJ.
42	Product Information. Xeglyze (abametapir topical). Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Inc, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
43	Product Information. Fycompa (perampanel). Eisai Inc, Teaneck, NJ.
44	Doherty MM, Charman WN "The mucosa of the small intestine: how clinically relevant as an organ of drug metabolism?" Clin Pharmacokinet 41 (2002): 235-53. [PMID: 11978143]
45	Product Information. Tavalisse (fostamatinib). Rigel Pharmaceuticals, South San Francisco, CA.